Mongolia

Geography

Mongolia lies in central Asia between Siberia on the north and China on the south. It is slightly larger than Alaska.

The productive regions of Mongolia—a tableland ranging from 3,000 to 5,000 ft (914 to 1,524 m) in elevation—are in the north, which is well drained by numerous rivers, including the Hovd, Onon, Selenga, and Tula. Much of the Gobi Desert falls within Mongolia.

Government

Parliamentary republic now in transition from communism.

History

Nomadic tribes that periodically plundered agriculturally based China from the west are recorded in Chinese history dating back more than 2,000 years. It was to protect China from these marauding peoples that the Great Wall was constructed around 200 B.C. The name Mongol comes from a small tribe whose leader, Ghengis Khan, began a conquest that would eventually encompass an enormous empire stretching from Asia to Europe, as far west as the Black Sea and as far south as India and the Himalayas. But by the 14th century, the kingdom was in serious decline, with invasions from a resurgent China and internecine warfare.

The State of Mongolia was formerly known as Outer Mongolia. It contains the original homeland of the historic Mongols, whose power reached its zenith during the 13th century under Kublai Khan. The area accepted Manchu rule in 1689, but after the Chinese Revolution of 1911 and the fall of the Manchus in 1912, the northern Mongol princes expelled the Chinese officials and declared independence under the Khutukhtu, or “Living Buddha.”

Chinese-Russian Treaty

In 1921, Soviet troops entered the country and facilitated the establishment of a republic by Mongolian revolutionaries in 1924. China also made a claim to the region but was too weak to assert it. Under the 1945 Chinese-Russian Treaty, China agreed to give up Outer Mongolia, which, after a plebiscite, became a nominally independent country.

A 20-year treaty of friendship and cooperation, signed in 1966, entitled Mongolia to call on the USSR for military aid in the event of invasion. Thus allied with the USSR in a dispute with China, Mongolia began mobilizing troops along its borders in 1968 when the two powers became involved in border clashes on the Kazakh-Sinkiang frontier to the west and at the Amur and Ussuri rivers.

Mongolian Democratic Revolution

In 1989, the Mongolian democratic revolution began, led by Sanjaasurengiyn Zorig. Free elections held in Aug. 1990 produced a multiparty government, though it was still largely Communist. As a result, Mongolia has moved only gradually toward a market economy. With the collapse of the USSR, however, Mongolia was deprived of Soviet aid. Primarily in reaction to the economic turmoil, the Communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won a significant majority in parliamentary elections in 1992. In 1996, however, the Democratic Alliance, an electoral coalition, defeated the MPRP, breaking with Communist rule for the first time since 1921. But in 1997, a former Communist and chairman of the People's Revolutionary Party, Natsagiyn Bagabandi, was elected president, further strengthening the hand of the antireformers. Then, in 1998, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, a pro-reform politician, became prime minister, but parliamentary cross-purposes led to his resignation, and a succession of prime ministers followed.

In 2005, Nambaryn Enkhbayar of the former Communist party MPRP became president, and Miyeegombo Enkhbold, also of the MPRP, was elected prime minister in 2006. Enkhbold resigned in Nov. 2007 after the MPRP ousted him as chairman of the party, citing his weakness as a leader. Sanj Bayar succeeded Enkhbold as both party chairman and prime minister.

Unprecedented violence and rioting followed June 2008's parliamentary elections, prompting the government to declare a state of emergency. Five people were killed, hundreds were injured, and more than 700 people were detained. Preliminary results gave 45 seats to the governing MPRP and 28 seats to the opposition Democratic Party. International observers did not report any irregularities in the voting, but the Democratic Party accused the MPRP of fraud. Meanwhile, Mongolia continues to be plagued by poor economic growth, corruption, and inflation.
In presidential elections, former prime minister, Tsakhiagiyn Elbegdorj (opposition Democratic Party), defeated incumbent Nambaryn Enkhbayar Won (MPRP) in a 51% to 47% victory. Elbegdorj took office in June 2009. Prime Minister Bayar resigned in October 2009, citing health reasons. He was succeeded by Foreign Minister Sukhbaataryn Batbold.

Mongolia's Economy Grows and So Does Worry Over China

In recent years, Mongolia has shown signs of economic growth. In February 2011, Citigroup placed Mongolia on its list of Global Growth Generators, one of the countries with the most promising growth prospects from 2010—2050. Also in 2011, the Mongolian Stock Exchange, had a total market capitalization of $2 billion (in U.S. dollars), quadrupling from $406 million in 2008.

However, Mongolia continued to be vulnerable to China's near monopoly over the country's exports and was still forced to take 30 percent less than their goods would be worth on the open market. In April 2012, news broke that Ivanhoe Mines of Canada was going to sell its majority share of a Mongolian coal mine to a Chinese state-owned aluminum manufacturer. The announcement forced Parliament to pass long-standing legislation prohibiting foreign enterprises from purchasing a majority of the country's industries without approval from the government. To balance its reliance on China, Mongolia has reached out to the United States, sending its troops to Afghanistan, Iraq and Alaska where they train with the National Guard.

In June 2012, President Elbegdorj was honored as a Champion of the Earth for his commitment to environmental protection. The award came from the United Nations Environmental Programme. In July 2012, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton visited Mongolia and commended Elbegdorj on his efforts to end corruption and on the country's democratic progress. In August 2012, Norov Altankhuyag assumed office as the country's new prime minister.

Elbegdorj Wins Reelection in 2013

On June 26, 2013, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj was reelected president. He received 50.23% of the vote. Badmaanyambuugiin Bat-Erdene, the Mongolian People's Party candidate, came in second with 41.97% of the vote. Elbegdorj was inaugurated for a second term on July 10, 2013.

The day after Elbegdorj's reelection, President Obama released this statement: "President Elbegdorj has been an important leader in advancing democracy and freedom in his country and a key partner for the United States in Asia and globally. Through its impressive democratic achievements and its progress on economic liberalization, Mongolia serves as a significant example of positive reform and transformation for peoples around the world."
In Nov. 2014, Prime Minister Norov Altankhuyag was ousted by parliament in a no-confidence vote of 36-30. Parliament elected Chimediin Saikhanbileg as the new prime minister later that month, by a vote of 42-2. Thirty-two members of parliament were not present at the time of the Saikhanbileg vote. A member of the Democratic Party, Saikhanbileg has previously served as leader of the Democratic caucus in parliament.

Mauritius

Geography

Mauritius is a mountainous island in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar.Government

Parliamentary democracy within the British Commonwealth.

History

After a brief Dutch settlement, French immigrants who came in 1715 named the island Île de France and established the first road and harbor infrastructure, as well as the sugar industry, under the leadership of Gov. Mahe de Labourdonnais. Blacks from Africa and Madagascar came as slaves to work in the sugarcane fields. In 1810, the British captured the island and in 1814, by the Treaty of Paris, it was ceded to Great Britain along with its dependencies.

Indian immigration, which followed the abolition of slavery in 1835, rapidly changed the fabric of Mauritian society, and the country flourished with the increased cultivation of sugarcane. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 heralded the decline of Mauritius as a port of call for ships rounding the southern tip of Africa, bound for South and East Asia. The economic instability of the price of sugar, the main crop, in the first half of the 20th century brought civil unrest, then economic, administrative, and political reforms. Mauritius became independent on March 12, 1968.

Agricultural Diversification

The effects of Cyclone Claudette in 1979 and of falling world sugar prices in the early 1980s led the government to initiate a vigorous program of agricultural diversification and develop the processing of imported goods for the export market. The country formally broke ties with the British Crown in March 1992, becoming a republic within the Commonwealth.

In addition to sugarcane, textile production and tourism are the leading industries. Primary education is free, and Mauritius boasts one of the highest literacy rates in sub-Saharan Africa.

With a complicated ethnic mix—about 30% of the population is of African descent and the remainder is mostly of Indian descent, both Hindu and Muslim—political allegiances are organized according to class and ethnicity.

Presidential Elections

In Feb. 2002, Mauritius went through four presidents in succession. Two resigned within days of each other, each after refusing to sign a controversial anti-terrorism law that severely curtailed the rights of suspects. The law, supported by the prime minister, was ultimately signed by a third, interim president. At the end of February, a fourth president, Karl Offman, was elected by parliament.

In Oct. 2003, Paul Berenger, a white Mauritian of French ancestry, became the first non-Hindu prime minister in the history of Mauritius. Berenger and the previous prime minister, Anerood Jugnauth, formed a coalition during Sept. 2000 elections. Under their agreement, Jugnauth served as prime minister for three years and Berenger assumed the prime ministership for the remaining two years of the term. Jugnauth then became president in 2003, and in July 2005, Navin Ramgoolam, prime minister from 1995 to 2000, again assumed that office.

President Jugnauth Resigns and Becomes Prime Minister for the Sixth Time

On March 30, 2012, President Anerood Jugnauth resigned. He cited his disagreement with new government policies and programs as well as a lack of accord with other members of the government. Recently, he had a very public conflict with Prime Minister Ramgoolam. Earlier in March, the tension between the two men erupted when a new opposition alliance, to be led by Jugnauth, was announced. Ramgoolam asked for Jugnauth's resignation if news of the new alliance was true. "I'm not in agreement with the philosophy of the government and the way the country is run," Jugnauth said to the local media while announcing his resignation. Vice President Monique Ohsan Bellepeau was named acting president.

Mauritius National Assembly elected Rajkeswur Purryag as president. He was sworn in on July 21, 2012.

In the 2014 General Elections, Anerood Jugnauth became prime minister for the sixth time. To become prime minister again, he led a historic alliance against the two largest parties in Mauritius, the Labour Party and Mauritian Militant Movement.

Spain

Geography

Spain occupies 85% of the Iberian Peninsula, which it shares with Portugal, in southwest Europe. Africa is less than 10 mi (16 km) south at the Strait of Gibraltar. A broad central plateau slopes to the south and east, crossed by a series of mountain ranges and river valleys. Principal rivers are the Ebro in the northeast, the Tajo in the central region, and the Guadalquivir in the south. Off Spain's east coast in the Mediterranean are the Balearic Islands (1,936 sq mi; 5,014 sq km), the largest of which is Majorca. Sixty mi (97 km) west of Africa are the Canary Islands (2,808 sq mi; 7,273 sq km).

Government

Parliamentary monarchy

History

Spain, originally inhabited by Celts, Iberians, and Basques, became a part of the Roman Empire in 206 B.C. , when it was conquered by Scipio Africanus. In A.D. 412, the barbarian Visigothic leader Ataulf crossed the Pyrenees and ruled Spain, first in the name of the Roman emperor and then independently. In 711, the Muslims under Tariq entered Spain from Africa and within a few years completed the subjugation of the country. In 732, the Franks, led by Charles Martel, defeated the Muslims near Poitiers, thus preventing the further expansion of Islam in southern Europe. Internal dissension of Spanish Islam invited a steady Christian conquest from the north.

Aragon and Castile were the most important Spanish states from the 12th to the 15th century, consolidated by the marriage of Ferdinand II and Isabella I in 1469. In 1478, they established the Inquisition, to root out heresy and uncover Jews and Muslims who had not sincerely converted to Christianity. Torquemada, the most notorious of the grand inquisitors, epitomized the Inquisition's harshness and cruelty. The last Muslim stronghold, Granada, was captured in 1492. Roman Catholicism was established as the official state religion and most Jews (1492) and Muslims (1502) were expelled. In the era of exploration, discovery, and colonization, Spain amassed tremendous wealth and a vast colonial empire through the conquest of Mexico by Cortés (1519–1521) and Peru by Pizarro (1532–1533). The Spanish Hapsburg monarchy became for a time the most powerful in the world. In 1588, Philip II sent his invincible Armada to invade England, but its destruction cost Spain its supremacy on the seas and paved the way for England's colonization of America. Spain then sank rapidly to the status of a second-rate power under the rule of weak Hapsburg kings, and it never again played a major role in European politics. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) resulted in Spain's loss of Belgium, Luxembourg, Milan, Sardinia, and Naples. Its colonial empire in the Americas and the Philippines vanished in wars and revolutions during the 18th and 19th centuries.

In World War I, Spain maintained a position of neutrality. In 1923, Gen. Miguel Primo de Rivera became dictator. In 1930, King Alfonso XIII revoked the dictatorship, but a strong antimonarchist and republican movement led to his leaving Spain in 1931. The new constitution declared Spain a workers' republic, broke up the large estates, separated church and state, and secularized the schools. The elections held in 1936 returned a strong Popular Front majority, with Manuel Azaña as president.

Civil War Leads to Franco's Rule and the Reestablishment of a Ceremonial Monarchy

On July 18, 1936, a conservative army officer in Morocco, Francisco Franco Bahamonde, led a mutiny against the government. The civil war that followed lasted three years and cost the lives of nearly a million people. Franco was aided by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, while Soviet Russia helped the Loyalist side. Several hundred leftist Americans served in the Abraham Lincoln Brigade on the side of the republic. The war ended when Franco took Madrid on March 28, 1939. Franco became head of the state, national chief of the Falange Party (the governing party), and prime minister and caudillo (leader).

In a referendum in 1947, the Spanish people approved a Franco-drafted succession law declaring Spain a monarchy again. Franco, however, continued as chief of state. In 1969, Franco and the Cortes (“states”) designated Prince Juan Carlos Alfonso Victor María de Borbón (who married Princess Sophia of Greece in 1962) to become king of Spain when the provisional government headed by Franco came to an end. Franco died on Nov. 20, 1975, and Juan Carlos was proclaimed king on Nov. 22.

Under pressure from Catalonian and Basque nationalists, Prime Minister Adolfo Suárez granted home rule to these regions in 1979. Basque separatists committed hundreds of terrorist bombings and kidnappings. With the overwhelming election of Prime Minister Felipe González Márquez and his Spanish Socialist Workers Party in the Oct. 20, 1982, parliamentary elections, the Franco past was finally buried.

Spain Joins the EU and Aznar's Popular Party Comes to Power

Spain entered NATO in 1982. Spain, along with Portugal, joined the European Economic Community, now the European Union, in 1986. General elections in March 1996 produced a victory for the conservative Popular Party, and its leader, José María Aznar, became prime minister. He and his party easily won reelection in 2000.

In Aug. 2002, Batasuna, the political wing of the Basque terrorist organization ETA, was banned. The wisdom of driving the party underground instead of permitting it a legitimate political outlet has been questioned.

Aznar's backing of the U.S. war in Iraq was highly unpopular—90% of Spaniards opposed the war. (Spain sent no troops to Iraq during the war but contributed 1,300 peacekeeping forces during the reconstruction period.) Yet Aznar's Popular Party did extremely well in municipal elections in May 2003. The country's relative prosperity and the prime minister's tough stance against the ETA were thought to be responsible for the strong showing.

Terrorist Bombing in Madrid Leads to Change in Government

On March 11, 2004, Spain suffered its most horrific terrorist attack: 191 people were killed and 1,400 were injured in bombings at Madrid's railway station. The government at first blamed ETA, but soon evidence emerged that al-Qaeda was responsible. When record numbers of voters went to the polls days later, Aznar's Popular Party experienced a stinging defeat, and José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero of the Socialist Party became the new prime minister. Many Spaniards blamed Aznar's staunch support of the U.S. and the war in Iraq for making Spain an al-Qaeda target. Others were angered by what they saw as the government's politically motivated position that ETA was to blame for the attacks at the same time that links to al-Qaeda were emerging. By April, a dozen suspects, most of them Moroccan, were arrested for the bombings. On April 4, several suspects blew themselves up during a police raid to avoid capture. In May, the new prime minister made good on his campaign promise, recalling Spain's 1,300 soldiers from Iraq, much to the displeasure of the United States, which said Spain was appeasing terrorists.

Socialists Lose Control of Parliament Amid Financial Crisis

The government dissolved Parliament in January 2008 and called for new elections. In the March election, Prime Minister Zapatero of the Socialist Party was reelected, taking 43.7% of the vote. Mariano Rajoy of the Popular Party garnered 40.1%. On April 12, Zapatero announced his cabinet, which for the first time includes more women than men.

Spain was hit particularly hard by the global recession beginning in 2009, with a contracting economy, a yawning budget deficit, and unemployment reaching 20% in March 2010. In May, Prime Minister Zapatero announced austerity measures, including deep spending cuts, pay reductions for government and civil workers, and an increase in the retirement age. Thousands of workers protested against the proposal. Parliament, however, passed the $18 billion spending cuts in late May. The country's woes continued into 2011—unemployment ticked up to 21%—, and anger over the austerity plan took its toll on Zapatero's Socialist Workers Party in local and regional elections in May 2011. Zapatero called for early elections, to be held in November, and said he would not run. In an attempt to close the budget gap, the government brought back a tax on the country's wealthiest citizens that had been abandoned in 2008.

In Nov. 2011 elections, Zapatero's Socialist Workers Party took a drubbing at the polls. The party's representation in the lower house of parliament fell to 110 seats from 169, and the conservative Popular Party won 186 seats, securing a majority in the 350-seat chamber. It was the Socialists' worst performance in about 30 years. Mariano Rajoy succeeded Zapatero as prime minister. Rajoy is no stranger to politics. He held several minsterial roles under José María Aznar from 1996 to 2004. He took over as party leader in 2004 and was expected to become prime minister, but was defeated by Zapatero and the Socialists. The two faced off again in 2008, with Zapatero winning reelection.

In April 2012, Spain was hit with a trifecta of grim economic news: the government released the country's most austere budget since 1975, which called for $36 billion in cuts and tax increases; unemployment hit 24.4%, more than double the European average; and the country fell into recession for the second time in three years. Spain's banks were also suffering, as many Spaniards could not meet their mortgage obligations. In June, Spain accepted a bailout of up to $125 billion from the European Union to recapitalize its banks. In return, Rajoy agreed to impose another round of austerity measures to further reduce the country's budget deficit, which included an increase to the sales tax, a move he had previously resisted.

In September, Rajoy's domestic woes grew more complicated after he rejected a request by the independence-seeking region of Catalona for more control over the collection and distribution of tax money. In response, the president of Catalona called for early elections, prompting concern that the drive for independence would intensify. Days later, Rajoy introduced a 2013 budget that called for increased taxation and spending cuts that he said would help the country meet the deficit-reduction requirements of the EU. In October, the unemployment rate reached 25%, the highest rate in decades.

Spain's prime minister, Mariano Rajoy, remained staid in the face of mounting evidence of financial and political corruption. On July 15, 2013, the Popular Party’s (PP) former treasurer, Luis Bárcenas, went public with documents and text messages implicating party leaders—including Mr. Rajoy—of receiving and distributing illegal funds.

In 2013 on the eve of one of Spain's most important religious festivals honoring St. James, which takes place every year on July 25, at least 79 people died and more than 140 were injured when a train derailed on the outskirts of Santiago de Compostela. The greatest loss of life for the country in 40 years, the accident is under judicial and civil investigation. Preliminary black box data indicated that the train was travelling at more than twice the speed limit for that stretch of track when it derailed.

Madagascar

Geography

Madagascar lies in the Indian Ocean off the southeast coast of Africa opposite Mozambique. The world's fourth-largest island, it is twice the size of Arizona. The country's low-lying coastal area gives way to a central plateau. The once densely wooded interior has largely been cut down.

Government

Multiparty republic.

History

The Malagasy are of mixed Malayo-Indonesian and African-Arab ancestry. Indonesians are believed to have migrated to the island about 700. King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810) ruled the major kingdom on the island, and his son, Radama I (1810–1828), unified much of the island. The French made the island a protectorate in 1885, and then, in 1894–1895, ended the monarchy, exiling Queen Rànavàlona III to Algiers. A colonial administration was set up, to which the Comoro Islands were attached in 1908, and other territories later. In World War II, the British occupied Madagascar, which retained ties to Vichy France.

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Independence Leads to Ratsiraka's Repressive Regime

An autonomous republic within the French Community since 1958, Madagascar became an independent member of the community in 1960. In May 1973, an army coup led by Maj. Gen. Gabriel Ramanantsoa ousted Philibert Tsiranana, president since 1959. Cdr. Didier Ratsiraka, named president on June 15, 1975, announced that he would follow a socialist course and, after nationalizing banks and insurance companies, declared all mineral resources nationalized. Repression and censorship characterized his regime. Ratsiraka was reelected in 1989 in a suspicious election that led to riots as well as the formation of a multiparty system in 1990. In 1991, Ratsiraka agreed to share power with the democratically minded opposition leader, Albert Zafy, who then overwhelmingly won the presidential elections in Feb. 1993. But Zafy was impeached by Parliament for abusing his constitutional powers during an economic crisis and lost the 1996 presidential election to Ratsiraka, who again became president in Feb. 1997.

Ratsiraka's Defeat

The Dec. 2001 presidential election between incumbent president Didier Ratsiraka and Marc Ravalomanana, the mayor of Antananarivo, proved inconclusive and a runoff vote was scheduled. But Ravalomanana claimed the election was rigged, and in Feb. 2002 he declared himself president. In response, Ratsiraka proclaimed martial law and set up a rival capital in Toamasina. Madagascar in effect found itself with two presidents and two capitals. After a recount in April, the high constitutional court declared Ravalomanana the winner with 51.5% of the vote. Ratsiraka, after first refusing to accept the outcome, fled to France in July, and Madagascar's six-month civil war ended. In Dec. 2006, Ravalomanana won reelection with 54.8% of the vote. In January 2007, he appointed Charles Rabemananjara as prime minister.

Ratsiraka's Defeat

The Dec. 2001 presidential election between incumbent president Didier Ratsiraka and Marc Ravalomanana, the mayor of Antananarivo, proved inconclusive and a runoff vote was scheduled. But Ravalomanana claimed the election was rigged, and in Feb. 2002 he declared himself president. In response, Ratsiraka proclaimed martial law and set up a rival capital in Toamasina. Madagascar in effect found itself with two presidents and two capitals. After a recount in April, the high constitutional court declared Ravalomanana the winner with 51.5% of the vote. Ratsiraka, after first refusing to accept the outcome, fled to France in July, and Madagascar's six-month civil war ended. In Dec. 2006, Ravalomanana won reelection with 54.8% of the vote. In January 2007, he appointed Charles Rabemananjara as prime minister.

President Brought Down by a Power Struggle and Coup

After a bitter power struggle with opposition leader Andry Rajoelina, the former mayor of the capital, Antananariv, Ravalomanana resigned as president in March 2009. He handed power over to the military, which in turn transferred control to Rajoelina, who then suspended Parliament. The turmoil began when Rajoelina was elected mayor of the capital in December 2007, defeating the president's candidate. Tension peaked between the two in Dec. 2008 when Ravalomanana, becoming increasingly autocratic, shuttered a television channel and radio station owned by Rajoelina. Rajoelina then staged weekly protests that grew increasingly violent. In Feb. 2009, Ravalomanana fired Rajoelina as mayor, and the opposition protests intensified, prompting Ravalomanana to submit power to the military in March. Military leaders handed over the presidency to Rajoelina in March 2009. He was 35 years-old at the time, making him the youngest president in the country's history. In August 2009, the two sides agreed to a power-sharing deal. However, the agreement was never implemented as supporters of Ravalomanana and Rajoelina bickered over the details and Rajoelina withdrew his support of the deal in December.

In November, 2010, Military officers, who just overthrew the government in 2009, claimed to have done so again by deposing of President Andry Rajoelina. Rajoelina responded by declaring on television that he is still in charge. He told reporters he was "not bothered by declarations from a handful of people."

In March, 2011, Rajoelina reappointed Camille Vital as prime minister of a transitional government, aiming to end a two-year political and economic crisis. The reappointment came after Vital and his government resigned because 8 of 11 political parties signed an agreement to form a new administration that will take the country to elections in either late 2011 or early 2012. Vital has been asked to form a new cabinet for the transitional government. The country has been in economic and political turmoil since Rajoeling replaced Ravalomanana, which led to Madagascar's suspension from the African Union and the South African Development Community. Aid from various donors has also been suspended.

Prime Minister Vital Resigns

In Oct. 2011, Prime Minister Albert Camille Vital and his government resigned. Omer Beriziky was named the new prime minister. Beriziky took office on Nov. 2, 2011. On Nov. 21, he named his government: Hery Rajaonarimampianina as finance minister, Florent Rakotoarisoa as interior minister, Pierrot Rajaonarivelo as foreign minister. General Lucien Rakotoarimasy remained on as armed forces minister.

Rajaonarimampianina Wins 2013 Presidential Election

In Dec. 2013, Madagascar held its presidential and parliamentary elections. The presidential elections were a run-off between the top two candidates of an earlier round, Jean Louis Robinson and Hery Rajaonarimampianina. Rajaonarimampianina won the runoff, receiving 54% of the vote.

Rajaonarimampianina took office on Jan. 25, 2014. He previously served as Minister of Finance. He has been the CEO of Air Madagascar since 2011. In April 2014, President Rajaonarimampianina named Roger Kolo prime minister. However, less than a year later, Kolo and his cabinet resigned over criticism of its poor handling of frequent power outages. In Jan. 2015, Rajaonarimampianina appointed air commodore Jean Ravelonarivo prime minister.

On May 26, 2015, Madagascar's parliament voted, by a 121-4 vote, to remove President Rajaonarimampianina from office because of "alleged constitutional violations and general incompetence." Next, the country's constitutional court would decide if parliament's decision to dismiss Rajaonarimampianina could be enacted legally.

Paraguay

Geography

California-size Paraguay is surrounded by Brazil, Bolivia, and Argentina in south-central South America. Eastern Paraguay, between the Paraná and Paraguay rivers, is upland country with the thickest population settled on the grassy slope that inclines toward the Paraguay River. The greater part of the Chaco region to the west is covered with marshes, lagoons, dense forests, and jungles.

Government

Constitutional republic.

History

Indians speaking Guaraní—the most common language in Paraguay today, after Spanish—were the country's first inhabitants. In 1526 and again in 1529, Sebastian Cabot explored Paraguay when he sailed up the Paraná and Paraguay rivers. From 1608 until their expulsion from the Spanish dominions in 1767, the Jesuits maintained an extensive establishment in the south and east of Paraguay. In 1811, Paraguay revolted against Spanish rule and became a nominal republic under two consuls.

Paraguay was governed by three dictators during the first 60 years of independence. The third, Francisco López, waged war against Uruguay, Brazil, and Argentina in 1865–1870, a conflict in which half the male population was killed. A new constitution in 1870, designed to prevent dictatorships and internal strife, failed to do so, and not until 1912 did a period of comparative economic and political stability begin. The Chaco War (1932–1935) with Bolivia won Paraguay more western territory.

After World War II, politics became particularly unstable. Alfredo Stroessner was dictator from 1954 until 1989, during which he was accused of the torture and murder of thousands of political opponents. Despite Paraguay's human rights record, the U.S. continuously supported Stroessner.

Stroessner was overthrown by army leader Gen. Andres Rodriguez in 1989. Rodriguez went on to win Paraguay's first multicandidate election in decades. Paraguay's new constitution went into effect in 1992. In 1993, Juan Carlos Wasmosy, a wealthy businessman and the candidate of the governing Colorado Party, won a five-year term in free elections.
Raúl Cubas Grau was elected president in May 1998. In 1999, Cubas was forced from office for his alleged involvement in the assassination of Vice President Luis María Argaña. The vice president had criticized Cubas for refusing to jail his mentor, Gen. Lino Oviedo, who had been convicted of leading a failed 1996 coup against Wasmosy. Oviedo was finally arrested in 2004 and jailed.

Luis Ángel González Macchi, appointed caretaker president after Cubas stepped down, was accused of mishandling $16 million in state funds, and in 2006 he was sentenced to six years in prison. Former journalist Nicanor Duarte Frutos became president on Aug. 15, 2003. He has pledged to clean up the pervasive corruption in his nearly bankrupt country. Paraguay has been in a protracted recession since the late 1990s.

On April 22, 2008, Fernando Lugo, a former Roman Catholic Bishop, was elected president of Paraguay beating the Colorado Party's candidate, Blanca Ovelar de Duarte, by 10 percentage points. Lugo's victory ended the Colorado Party's 61 years in power—a system of bureaucracy and patronage founded in 1887. Fernando Lugo was sworn in as president on Aug. 15, 2008.

Paraguay Experiences Largest Economic Growth in South America

In 2010, Paraguay experienced the greatest economic expansion in South America. Its economy was the 2nd fastest expanding economy in the world, after Qatar. Paraguay had a GDP growth rate of 14.5% by the end of 2010. Part of the expansion was due to long-term growth in the country's industrial sector, after years of declining production. Another reason was that rise of Paraguay's pharmaceutical industry, which supplied 70% of domestic consumption in 2010 and even begun exporting drugs. The country also showed rapid growth in the areas of steel, meat processing, organic sugar, and edible oils.

In August 2010, President Fernando Lugo was diagnosed with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. He sought treatment in Brazil. He managed to continue his duties as President while undergoing treatment. President Lugo was one of several leaders in the region recently diagnosed with cancer. President Dilma Rousseff of Brazil was treated for lymphoma in 2009. In December 2011, Argentina's president, Cristina Fernández, was treated for thyroid cancer. Venezuela's Hugo Chávez underwent treatment for an undisclosed type of cancer in 2011.

Senate Votes to Remove President Lugo

On June 22, 2012, Paraguay's Senate voted to oust President Fernando Lugo. The vote happened after the Senate convened, put Lugo on trial and went over a list of accusations. The Senate refused Lugo's request for time to come back with a defense. With the presidential elections only nine months away, Lugo accepted the Senate's decision. Vice President Federico Franco replaced Lugo.

Argentina and Brazil immediately announced they would remove their ambassadors from Paraguay. President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner of Argentina and President Hugo Chávez of Venezuela both called Lugo's dismal a coup d'état.

2013 Elections Return Power to Colorado Party

General elections were held on April 21, 2013. The Colorado Party took the majority in the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, putting them back in control. The Colorado Party had been in power for sixty years until they lost the majority in 2008.

Colorado Party candidate Horacio Cartes defeated the Paraguay Alegre alliance's Efraín Alegre for president. Cartes received 45.80 percent of the vote and was scheduled to take office on August 15, 2013. During his campaign, Cartes, who owns around two dozen businesses in Paraguay, promised to create jobs, modernize public enterprises, and raise private capital to upgrade the country's infrastructure. On August 12, 2013, Cartes announced his cabinet: Eladio Loizaga (foreign minister), Bernardino Soto (defense minister), Francisco de Vargas (interior minister), and Germán Rojas (finance minister).

Slovakia

Geography

Slovakia is located in central Europe. The land has rugged mountains, rich in mineral resources, with vast forests and pastures. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the topography of Slovakia, with lowland areas in the southern region. Slovakia is about twice the size of the state of Maryland.

Government

Parliamentary democracy.

History

Present-day Slovakia was settled by Slavic Slovaks about the 6th century. They were politically united in the Moravian empire in the 9th century. In 907, the Germans and the Magyars conquered the Moravian state, and the Slovaks fell under Hungarian control from the 10th century up until 1918. When the Hapsburg-ruled empire collapsed in 1918 following World War I, the Slovaks joined the Czech lands of Bohemia, Moravia, and part of Silesia to form the new joint state of Czechoslovakia. In March 1939, Germany occupied Czechoslovakia, established a German “protectorate,” and created a puppet state out of Slovakia with Monsignor Josef Tiso as prime minister. The country was liberated from the Germans by the Soviet army in the spring of 1945, and Slovakia was restored to its prewar status and rejoined to a new Czechoslovakian state.

After the Communist Party took power in Feb. 1948, Slovakia was again subjected to a centralized Czech-dominated government, and antagonism between the two republics developed. In Jan. 1969, the nation became the Slovak Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia.

Nearly 42 years of Communist rule for Slovakia ended when Vaclav Havel became president of Czechoslovakia in 1989 and democratic political reform began. However, with the demise of Communist power, a strong Slovak nationalist movement resurfaced, and the rival relationship between the two states increased. By the end of 1991, discussions between Slovak and Czech political leaders turned to whether the Czech and Slovak republics should continue to coexist within the federal structure or be divided into two independent states.

Slovakia Becomes an Independent Republic and Eventually Joins the EU and NATO

After the general election in June 1992, it was decided that two fully independent republics would be created. The Republic of Slovakia came into existence on Jan. 1, 1993. The parliament in February elected Michal Kovac as president.

Populist Vladimir Meciar, who served three times as Slovakia's prime minister, exhibited increasingly authoritarian behavior and was cited as the reason Slovakia was for a time eliminated from consideration for both the EU and NATO. Slovakia's very low influx of foreign capital during Meciar's tenure was the result of his government's lack of transparency. Meciar was unseated in 1998 elections by the reformist government of Mikulás Dzurinda. In April 2000 Meciar was arrested and charged with paying illegal bonuses to his cabinet ministers while in office. A three-week standoff with police preceded the arrest, ending only when police commandos blew open the door on Meciar's house and seized him. He was also questioned about his alleged involvement in the 1995 kidnapping of the son of Slovakia's former president, Michal Kovac.

Dzurinda has improved Slovakia's reputation in the West, but his tough economic measures have made him unpopular within the country. Former prime minister Meciar has proven oddly resilient. In Sept. 2002 elections, the ruling coalition held onto power, despite Meciar coming out ahead in the vote. In April 2004, Meciar ran for the presidency against his former right-hand man, Ivan Gasparovic. Gasparovic, however, won the largely ceremonial post by a wide majority. In 2004, Slovakia joined the EU and NATO. In May 2005, it ratified the EU constitution.

Robert Fico of the Socialist Party became prime minister in July 2006, after forming an odd coalition with two right-wing nationalist parties, including Meciar's.
In April 2009, incumbent Ivan Gasparovic won the presidential elections with 46.7% of the vote. Parliamentary elections in July 2010 were inconclusive. Iveta Radicova, a former MP and presidential candidate in 2009, became prime minister, heading a four-party coalition government. The coalition includes her conservative Slovakian Democratic and Christian Union, the liberal Freedom and Solidarity Party, the largely Hungarian Most-Hid, and the Christian Democrat Movement.

Slovakia Key Player in European Bailout Fund

In October 2011, Slovakia found itself in the position of determining the fate of a euro-zone bailout fund. Parliament, responding to outrage among citizens who did not think it was their responsibility to help finance the rescue of much richer and larger countries, such as Greece and Portugal, voted against supporting an expansion of the European Financial Stability Facility, which administers the bailout fund. In voting down the legislation, Parliament also passed a no confidence in the government of Prime Minister Radicova. The legislation passed two days later, however, when an opposition party joined with the government and voted in support of the measure. In exchange for their support, the government agreed to hold early elections in March 2012. In the election, the Smer-Social Democracy Party, headed by Robert Fico, who served as prime minister from 2006 to 2009, won 83 seats in the 150-seat parliament. Fico returned to power, and for the first time since Slovakia gained independence in 1993, a party will govern without having to form a coalition.

2014 Brings New President

Slovakia held presidential elections on March 15, 2014. Ivan Gašparovič, president from 2004 to 2014 and the first to be re-elected to a second term, could not run for a third term because Slovakia's constitution only allows two.
No candidate had a clear majority after the first round of the 2014 presidential elections. However, Prime Minister Robert Fico and Independent candidate Andrej Kiska had enough votes for a runoff which was held on March 29. Kiska won with 59.38% of the popular vote to Fico's 40.61%. An entrepreneur and philanthropist, Kiska had no political experience prior to the election. Kiska was sworn in on June 15, 2014.

Ukraine

Geography

     Located in southeast Europe, the country consists largely of fertile black soil steppes. Mountainous areas include the Carpathians in the southwest and the Crimean chain in the south. Ukraine is bordered by Belarus on the north, by Russia on the north and east, by the Black Sea on the south, by Moldova and Romania on the southwest, and by Hungary, Slovakia, and Poland on the west.

Government

Constitutional republic.

History

     Ukraine was known as “Kievan Rus” (from which Russia is a derivative) up until the 16th century. In the 9th century, Kiev was the major political and cultural center in eastern Europe. Kievan Rus reached the height of its power in the 10th century and adopted Byzantine Christianity. The Mongol conquest in 1240 ended Kievan power. From the 13th to the 16th century, Kiev was under the influence of Poland and western Europe. The negotiation of the Union of Brest-Litovsk in 1596 divided the Ukrainians into Orthodox and Ukrainian Catholic faithful. In 1654, Ukraine asked the czar of Moscovy for protection against Poland, and the Treaty of Pereyasav signed that year recognized the suzerainty of Moscow. The agreement was interpreted by Moscow as an invitation to take over Kiev, and the Ukrainian state was eventually absorbed into the Russian Empire.

  

      After the Russian Revolution, Ukraine declared its independence from Russia on Jan. 28, 1918, and several years of warfare ensued with several groups. The Red Army finally was victorious over Kiev, and in 1920 Ukraine became a Soviet republic. In 1922, Ukraine became one of the founders of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. In the 1930s, the Soviet government's enforcement of collectivization met with peasant resistance, which in turn prompted the confiscation of grain from Ukrainian farmers by Soviet authorities; the resulting famine took an estimated 5 million lives. Ukraine was one of the most devastated Soviet republics after World War II. (For details on World War II, see Headline History, World War II.) On April 26, 1986, the nation's nuclear power plant at Chernobyl was the site of the world's worst nuclear accident. On Oct. 29, 1991, the Ukrainian parliament voted to shut down the reactor within two years' time and asked for international assistance in dismantling it.

An Independent Nation

     When President Leonid Kravchuk was elected by the Ukrainian parliament in 1990, he vowed to seek Ukrainian sovereignty. Ukraine declared its independence on Aug. 24, 1991. In Dec. 1991, Ukrainian, Russian, and Belorussian leaders cofounded a new Commonwealth of Independent States with the capital to be situated in Minsk, Belarus. The new country's government was slow to reform the Soviet-era state-run economy, which was plagued by declining production, rising inflation, and widespread unemployment in the years following independence. The U.S. announced in Jan. 1994 that an agreement had been reached with Russia and Ukraine for the destruction of Ukraine's entire nuclear arsenal. In Oct. 1994, Ukraine began a program of economic liberalization and moved to reestablish central authority over Crimea. In 1995, Crimea's separatist leader was removed and the Crimean constitution revoked.

     In June 1996, the last strategic nuclear warhead was removed to Russia. Also that month parliament approved a new constitution that allowed for private ownership of land. An agreement was signed in May 1997 on the future of the Black Sea fleet, by which Ukrainian and Russian ships will share the port of Sevastopol for 20 years.

Pro-Western Parties Dominate Parliamentary Elections

     In October 2014, Human Rights Watch said it had evidence that the Ukrainian army attacked civilian-populated areas of rebel-held Donetsk with cluster bombs on twice occasions. The bombs, which scatter dozens or more bomblets, are banned by may countries. Ukraine denied the accusation, which if proves correct, could discourage the population in the east from engaging with the government.

     Parliamentary elections were held in late October. As expected, the pro-Western parties of President Poroshenko and Prime Minister Yatsenyuk dominated, but neither won an outright majority. In an upset, Yatsenyuk's Peoples Front party defeated Bloc Petro Poroshenko by a slim margin: 22.2% to 21.8%. They will likely form a coalition government. Crimea did not participate in the election, nor the rebel-held areas, which said they would hold their own elections. The Opposition Bloc, made up of loyalists of former President Yanukovych, garnered 9%, enough to take seats in parliament. The new government will have to carry out reforms, including scaling back the size of government and rooting out corruption, to receive aid from the International Monetary Fund. Fiscally strapped, the country also needs find the funds to make a $1.5 billion debt payment to Russia, else jeopardize future oil deliveries.

     Elections were in fact held in Luhansk and Donetsk, separatist-controlled areas of eastern Ukraine, in early November 2014, in violation of the cease-fire agreement signed in Minsk in September. The the Ukrainian government, U.S., and EU said they would not recognize the results of the election. Russia declared the results as binding.

Cease-fire in Tatters Amid Resurgence of Fighting

     The elections in Luhansk and Donetsk in November 2014 were hardly the only violations of the cease-fire. Violence was rampant almost since the agreement was signed, with both the separatists and the Ukrainian military accusing each other of attacks. Between the signing of the cease-fire and early December, about 1,000 civilians and soldiers were killed—about 25% of the total 4,300 military and civilian fatalities. In addition, NATO reported that Russia has continued to supply the rebels with combat troops, vehicles, backing up claims by the Ukrainian government. The cease-fire was all but shattered in January 2015 when the fighting between separatists and the government intensified in eastern Ukraine, rebels took over the Donetsk airport, and evidence mounted that Russia was supplying the rebels with increasingly sophisticated weapons. President Poroshenko said as many as 9,000 Russian soldiers were taking part in the fighting in Luhansk and Donetsk, a claim Russia denied.

Expectations Low for Renewed Truce Agreement; Economy in Tatter

     Amid the crisis, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, Germany, and France met in February 2015 to try to resurrect the peace agreement signed in September 2014 in Minsk, called the Minsk Protocol. On Feb. 12 after 16 hours of negotiations, the parties agreed to a cease-fire, which would go into effect on Feb. 14, and to end the war in eastern Ukraine. However, some terms of the agreement left many skeptical that the cease-fire would hold. For example, the location of the truce line was not defined. They did agree that both sides would remove heavy weapons and release prisoners, the constitution would be amended, the separatist regions of Donetsk and Luhansk would be given "special status," and foreign troops and weapons will be withdrawn.

     Between the signing of the accord and its implementation, shelling continued in Debaltseve, a contested town that's the site of a railroad hub that links Donetsk and Luhansk, rebel strongholds. Some 8,000 troops had been under seige in the town since the fall of 2014. Rebel leader Aleksandr Zakharchenko said the cease-fire did not apply to the town. On Feb. 16, rebels took control of Debaltseve and Ukrainian troops withdrew from the town. It was considered one of the worst defeats for the military.

     The war in eastern Ukraine took its toll on the country's economy. Facing bankruptcy, Ukraine appealed to the International Monetary Fund. In February 2015, the IMF pledged $17.5 billion and potentially $40 billion over four years if Ukraine complied with economic reforms that will promote economic growth. At a summit meeting with the European Union in April 2015, Ukraine requested additional military aid and a peacekeeping force for the Donbas region. The EU, however, said that further aid is contingent upon Ukraine implementing further reforms.